Musical Genre Classification of Audio Signals Essay Example for Free

Musical Genre Classification of Audio Signals Essay Musical genres are categorized by human. It depends on human hearing. There are common characteristics shared by categories. These characteristics are related to instrumentation, rhythmic structure, and harmonic content of the music. Currently many music is still classified by manually. Automated system for musical genre classification can assist or replace manual work for classifying musical genre. In this paper, the automatic classification of audio signals into hierarchy of musical genres is explored. Three feature sets for representing timbral texture, rhythmic content and pitch content are proposed. Also propose classification through two-times KNN classification method and show enhancement of accuracy. Using two-time KNN classification method increases accuracy about 5% than one-time ++++KNN classification which two-time KNN classification accuracy is 77.9% and one-time KNN classification accuracy is 73.3%. Index Terms – Music classification, feature extraction, wavelets, KNN classification Table of Contents I. II. Introduction Music Modeling Genre Segmentation III. Feature Extraction A. Timbral Texture Features i. ii. iii. iv. B. Spectral shape features Mel-frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCCs) Texture window Low-Energy features Rhythmic Features C. Pitch Content Features IV. Classification V. Evaluation and Discussion VI. References I. Introduction Musical genres are categorized by human. It depends on human hearing. There are common characteristics shared by categories. These characteristics are related to instrumentation, rhythmic structure, and harmonic content of the music. Genre classification is magnified when music industry moved from CD to web. In web music is distributed in large amount so importance of genre classification is magnified. Currently many music is still classified by manually. Automated system for musical genre classification can assist or replace manual work for classifying musical genre. In era of web, it enabled to access large amount of all kinds of data such as music, movies, news and so on. Music database has been grown exponentially since first perceptual coders early in the 90’s. As database grows it demanded tools that can enable search, retrieve and handle large amount of data. Classifying musical genre was great tool for searching, retrieving and handling large music data base [1-3]. There are several more method such as music emotion classification [4], beat tracking [5], preference recommendation [6], and etc.. Musical genres classification (MGC) are created and used for categorized and describe music. Musical genre has no precise definitions or boundaries because it is categorized by human hearing. Musical genres classification are highly related to public marketing, historical and cultural factors. Different countries and organizations have different genre lists, and they even define the same genre with different definitions. So it is hard to define certain genres precisely. There is not an official specification of music genre until now. There are about 500 to 800 genres in music [7, 8]. Some researchers suggested the definition of musical genres classification [9]. After several attempt to define musical genres researchers figured out that it shares certain characteristics such as instrumentation, rhythmic structure, and pitch content. Genre hierarchies were created by human experts and they are currently used to classify music in the web. Auto MGC can provide automating classifying process and provide important component for complete music information. The most significant proposal to specifically deal with this task was released in 2002 [3]. S everal strategies dealing with related problems have been proposed in research areas. In this paper, automatic musical genre classification is proposed showed in Figure 1. For feature extraction, three sets of features for representing instrumentation (timberal), rhythmic content and pitch content are proposed. Figure 1 Automatic Musical Genre Classification II. Music Modeling Genre Segmentation An untrained and non-expert person can detect the genre of a song with accuracy of 72% by hearing three-second segmentation of the song [11]. However computer is not design like human brain so it can’t process MGC like human. Despite whole song may somehow influence the representativeness of feature, using whole song can extract most of features that music has. Also to extract short segment of music for automation system is unsuited for the purpose because difficulty of finding exact time of music that represents genre of music. Without research finding certain section of music representing its characteristic using whole song to modeling is proper way to MGC. There are too many music genres used in web [7, 8]. Classification genre has to be simplified and in this paper proposed genres which are popular used in MP3 players in the market. Figure 2 Taxonomy of Music Genre III. Feature Extraction Feature extraction is the process of computing numerical representation that can be used to characterize segment of audio and classify its genre. Digital music file contains data sampled from analog audio signal. It has huge data size compared to its actual information. Features are thus extracted from audio signal to obtain more meaningful information and reduce the over-loading processing. For feature extraction three sets of features for representing instrumentation (timberal), rhythmic content and pitch content will be used [3]. 1. Timbral Texture Features The features used to represent timbre texture are based on the features proposed in  speech recognition. The following specific features are usually used to represent timbre texture. â‘   Spectral shape features [1-3] Spectral shape features are computed directly from the power spectrum of an audio signal frame, describing the shape and characteristics of the power spectrum. The calculated features are based on the short time Fourier transform (STFT) and are calculated for every short-time frame of sound. There are several ways to extract feature with spectral shape feature. 1. Spectral centroid is centroid of the magnitude spectrum of STFT and its measure of spectral brightness.

Social Media as Emerging Technology

Social Media as Emerging Technology Investigate emerging IT technologies:  Social Networks appear to be all  the rage at the moment. Introduction Psychology is classically defined as â€Å"†¦ The science of behavior †¦Ã¢â‚¬ , which in the case of human beings manifests itself when others are present, thus representing behavioral instances in social interaction (Kenny, 1996). The phenomenon of socialization and networking have been extended by the global presence of the Internet whereby individuals through specific social networking websites have access to a broad context of toher individuals that is further defined by the type of website which have differing population, age and constituency compositions (Freeman, 2004, pp. 10- 29). The internet through emails, instant messaging, online dating and blogging has created a relatively secure means for people to engage in socialized behavior while being able to feel relatively safe in terms of personality differences and other areas that might not be the case in situations whereby they are exposed to individuals on a direct basis with whom they might not have common inte rest areas and or outlooks (Ethier, 2004). All of the preceding factors are components that have given rise to the dramatic increase and popularity in online social network services. Classmates.com, which was started in 1995, represented the first social network website, which was followed by Company of Friends that was the online network of the magazine Fast Company in 1997 that began the era of business networking (FastCompany.com, 2004). The promise of privacy, like-minded interests, and being able to socialize saw online social networking become extremely popular in 2002 and increase to the point where presently there are over 200 of these types of web sites globally (RateItAll.com, 2007). And as it is with any type of activity that attracts large numbers of people, social networking is big business. As a result the Internet has and is offering firms in this sphere an advantage in bringing together distinct profiles of individuals with marketing potential beyond any fees or charges to the members (Robson, 1996, pp. 250-26 0). However, that business segment, social networking, is increasing taking on the look of the dot-com frenzy that gripped in Internet in 2001 (Madslien, 2005). As was the question then, looms as the same questions now regarding online social networking. What are their business models? What type of revenue are they generating? What is their profitability? What are their differences and will the phenomenon last? These factors are areas that will be explored herein. Online social networks are forums whereby people can meet new individuals, network and initiate or maintain contact with old acquaintances through the relative privacy of the Internet, thus enabling business or socially minded people to enlarge their spheres through providing and exchanging information on themselves (Epic.org, 2006). Facebook (2007) is system comprised of a number of networks, with each one based around a region, or company, high school and or college that permits its users to share information on themselves that allows a broad category of differing types and demographics of people to use their social networks as opposed to offering contacts that are geared to a specific type of profile. Thus it provides a more diverse population and appeal to advertisers implementing this type of expanded user profile. The differing networks within Facebook are independent as well as being closed off to users that are non-affiliated thereby providing control over the content to spec ific group profiles. It, Facebook, is an English language web site that enjoys popularity among college students as its largest profile group, numbering in excess of 17 million, or roughly 85% of all U.S. college students (Arrington, 2006). Facebook is free for users, utilizing advertising, banner ads and sponsored groups for revenues that are estimated to be in the area of $53,000,000 annually (Arrington, 2006). Another type of social networking web site is LinkedIn, which is business oriented, primarily established to enable professional networking (Dragan, 2004). The company’s 40,000 member list includes such high profile individuals as company vice presidents, over 700, Chief Executive Officers, over 500, and 140 Chief Treasury Officers (Dragan, 2004). Not yet generating a profit, LinkedIn, charges a fee regarding its basic service and charges what it terms as ‘power users’ representing executive recruiters, investment professionals and sales representatives who use the service to tap into its network an additional charge (Liedtke, 2004). Many members utilized their personal contacts and associates to find, fill jobs and to increase their sales, thus offering a very high select user profile that also generates income from advertisers, however, the business model has yet to prove profitable (Liedtke, 2004). Founded in 2003, it has become a sort of ‘in’ plac e for professionals increasingly identifying its members as being in a special group of movers and shakers, as it is termed (Copeland, 2006). At present, LinkedIn has existed on venture capital funding representing almost $15 million USD from investors such as Sequoia Capital along with Greylock, with the company’s business model based upon advertising revenue and fees projected to generate $100 million in revenues by the year 2008 (Copeland, 2006). The goal is to increase the web site’s membership making it the number one professional resource for business and networking, job referrals, references, experts and whatever else is needed for professionals (Copeland, 2006). The younger generation of teens and those in their early twenties tend to use hi5, which has over 40 million members in the pattern of a MySpace social network (Mashable.com, 2006). The massive traffic the web site generates makes it the eighth most visited social network web site in the United States, but is losing market share in the face of rival companies such as Facebook, Bebo, Piczo, Tagworld, Multiply and others that also covet this user group, with MySpace as the dominant performer, stealing market share from all these rivals (Mashable.com, 2006). In keeping with the general social network format, hi5 offers profile pages with basic services offered for free and the site, like others, generating revenues from advertising, banner ads and referrals to music and other web sites such as iTunes for music downloads. The mode of this social network allows users to connect to their friends, build and introduce themselves to new ones as well as invite their own (hi5.com, 2007). Still in the venture capital backed stage, hi5 does not provide information on its revenues or related data. Bebo (2007), as is the case with social networking sites geared at the younger generation, offers users the ability to post their pictures, write blogs and of course send messages. A relative newcomer, 2005, Bebo like hi5, Facebook, Tagworld, Multiply and other allows users to post their talents on their personal pages on a special â€Å"New Music Only on Bebo† section (Bebo, 2007). Any discussion of online social networks must of course include MySpace, the largest web site of its kind, achieving almost 80% of online visits in this category (Answers.com, 2007a). With over 125 million users the site is targeted at the teenage and under thirty crowd that in typical fashion, allows users to create their own personal profile pages that can be enhanced with HTML code to make them into multimedia pages (Answers.com, 2007a). This aspect allows users to post special aspects on themselves, such as their talents, videos, music and paintings, with its success being proven by its purchase by News Corporation for in excess of 500 million USD (Answers.com, 2007a). MySpace business model of advertising revenues, banners and fees has achieved success as a result of size, the determining factor in Internet related businesses. Friends United in the UK represents a combination of all of the other online social networking sites discussed. It encourages friends, family and individuals to connect for reunions, communication, genealogy, socializing, dating and like LinkedIn it offers job searches and job hunting (Friends Reunited, 2007). And in going one better than its American counterparts, the site offers television broadcasts via the company’s parent company ITV network as well as the popular format of music CD collections. All of these facets are revenue generators that users can access free (Answers.com, 2007b). With 15 million members, Friends United has access to almost half of all UK households with Internet service and was founded on the idea of the owners, Steve and Julie Pankhurst, who were looking for old classmates and found a lost friend of 30 years (Answers.com, 2007b). The success of the multiple interest web site, combining all of the features found in the highly successful U.S. social networks, and with its own fresh new wrinkles such as television broadcasts, resulted from the purchase of the company from the Pankhursts by ITV in December of 2005 for  £120,000,000. As would be expected, online social networks have become a global phenomenon that has taken off particularly in the Asian region. Japan’s top social networking site ‘Mixi’ is a highly organized, in Japanese fashion, web site that is a kind of MySpace knock off in the Japanese language, utilizing the same advertising, banner ad, music referral business model (Kageyama, 2007). The cultural nuance is apparent in that â€Å"MySpace is about me, me, me and look at me †¦Ã¢â‚¬ , whereas â€Å" †¦ Mixi, is not all about me. It’s all about us† reflecting the more reserved nature of the Japanese culture (Kageyama, 2007). Social networks of the non online variety have long been a fixture of Asian societies, and in Korea CyWorld has grown to the point where it is launching a U.S. version with an initial investment of $10 million USD and a pledge to spend whatever it takes to be successful. (Kirkpatrick, 2006). With versions in Japan as well as China and Taiwan, CyWorld is an example of the universal nature of the social networking business model. The formulas utilized globally are basically the same, free access, bring in large numbers of people, charge advertisers, and diversify the revenue stream through music, television access, movie CD’s and other sources. Conclusion As was and is the case in the United States as represented by MySpace, market share and dominance determine value, to advertisers, investors and buyers. Friends United is the largest social networking site in the UK and commanded the same interest on the part of a large corporation that MySpace did in the U.S. Success translates as having a commanding percentage of a nation’s user profile, which aids in the web site being able to attract better and more advertisers at increased rates, along with banner ads, music web site referrals and other revenue streams. The venture capital backed nature of the online social network sites makes access to their profitability elusive, with all but the most popular sites, as indicated having been either acquired by large corporations, MySpace – Friends Reunited for example, or having an expansive nature, CyWorld and MySpace, indicating that revenues and profits must be adequate if not substantial. As eBay and Yahoo have proven, market dominance does translate into revenues, but there is a lag time that takes well heeled investors or corporations to underwrite. And the stakes have made the game hotter as more entrants as well as current players up the ante (Hicks, 2004). But, that is not all bad news as â€Å"†¦ not all online social networks are the same †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Jacobs, 2006). And while the differences in demographics, profiles, appeal and niche are similar, the tremendous online numbers allow for the distinctions (Jacobs, 2006). And as is the case with dominant sized competitors, they have the clout to slowly dip into their smaller competitors, thus increasing their size advantage, or accomplishing the same through acquisition. And this brings up the other side of the coin, with most of the online social network sites funded by venture capitalists who are in it for the sell off to another company, and or stock play, is the phenomenon one that is ready to burst (seomoz.org, 2006). MySpace has yet to prove its $580 million investment by Rupert Murdoch’s News Corporation despite its size, and the venture capital market, which has pumped more that $824 million into the sector since 2001 is still awaiting returns on most of that money (Rosmarin, 2006). But, with MySpace and Friends Reunited pulling in almost half of their respective countries Internet access subscribers, the potential for huge profits represents a bet that most companies have opted not to miss out on. Privately held Facebook’s recent rejection of a $750 million offer is a demonstration of this point (Rosenbush, 2006). The jury and the results are still out as the industry grows and some consolidation occurs, then the real story will reveal itself in terms of profitability as well as staying power. Bibliography Answers.com (2007b) Friends Reunited. Retrieved on 24 February 2007 from http://www.answers.com/topic/friends-reunited Answers.com (2007a) MySpace. Retrieved on 24 February 2007 from http://www.answers.com/topic/myspace Arrington (2006) 85% of College Students Use Facebook. Retrieved on 24 February 2007 from http://www.techcrunch.com/2005/09/07/85-of-college-students-use-facebook/ Bebo (2007) Bebo. Retrieved on 24 February 2007 from http://www.bebo.com/ Copeland, M. (2006) A MySpace for grown-ups. 4 December 2006. Retrieved on 24 February 2007 from http://money.cnn.com/magazines/business2/business2_archive/2006/12/01/8394967/index.htm?postversion=2006120415 Dragan, R. (2004) LinkedIn. Retrieved on 23 February 2007 from http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,4149,1418686,00.asp Epic.org (2006) Social Networking Privacy. Retrieved on 23 February 2007 from http://www.epic.org/privacy/socialnet/default.html Ethier, J. (2004) Current Research in Social Network Theory. Retrieved on 22 February 2007 from http://www.ccs.neu.edu/home/perrolle/archive/Ethier-SocialNetworks.html Facebook (2007) Facebook. Retrieved on 23 February 2007 from http://www.facebook.com/ FastCompany.com (204) What the Heck is Social Networking. 16 March 2004. Retrieved on 22 February 2007 from http://blog.fastcompany.com/archives/2004/03/16/what_the_heck_is_social_networking.html Freeman, L. (2004) The Development of Social Network Analysis: A Study in the Sociology of Science. Empirical Press Friends Reunited (2007) Welcome to Friends Reunited – what are your old friends doing now. Retrieved on 24 February 2007 from http://www.friendsreunited.co.uk/friendsreunited.asp?WCI=FRMainshow=Ypage=UKrandomiser=4 hi5.com (2007) hi5. Retrieved on 24 February 2007 from http://www.hi5.com/ Hicks, M. (2004) Social Networking Keeps Buzzing. 15 October 2004. Retrieved 24 February 2007 from http://www.eweek.com/article2/0,1895,1677508,00.asp Jacobs, D. (2007) Different Online Social Networks Draw Different Age Groups: Report. 7 October 2007. Retrieved on 24 February 2007 from http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/20061007/myspace-friendster-xanga-facebook.htm Kageyama, Y. (2007) MySpace faces stiff competition in Japan. 18 February 2007. Retrieved on 24 February 2007 from http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070219/ap_on_hi_te/japan_social_networking Kenny, D. (1996) The Design and Analysis of Social-Interaction Research. Vol. 47. Annual Review of Psychology Kirkpatrick, M. (2006) Massive Korean Social Network CyWorld Launches in U.S. 27 July 2006. Retrieved on 24 February 2007 from http://www.techcrunch.com/2006/07/27/this-is-nuts-cyworld-us-opens-for-use/ Liedtke, M. (2004) Networking site LinkedIn Causes Buzz – but can it be profitable? 25 October 2004. Retrieved on 24 February 2007 from http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/business/196580_linkedin25.html Madslien, J. (2005) Dotcom Shares Still Spook Investors. Retrieved on 22 February 2007 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4333899.stm Mashable.com (2006) hi5, Another Massive Social Network. Retrieved on 24 February 2007 from http://mashable.com/2006/07/16/hi5-another-massive-social-network/ RateItAll.com (2007) Social Networking Web Sites. Retrieved on 22 February 2007 from http://www.rateitall.com/t-1900-social-networking-web-sites.aspx?age=zipcode=gender=sort=0pagesize=all Robson, W. (1996) Strategic Management and Information Systems: An Integrated Approach. Trans-Atlantic Publications Rosenbush, S. (2006) Facebook’s on the Block. 28 March 2006. Retrieved on 24 February 2007 from http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/mar2006/tc20060327_215976.htm?chan=technology_technology+index+page_todays+top+stories Rosmarin, R. (2006) The MySpace Bubble. 29 June 2006. Retrieved on 24 February 2007 from http://www.forbes.com/home/digitalentertainment/2006/06/29/myspace-network-facebook_cx_rr_0629socialnetwork.html seomoz.org. (2006) Is Social Networking a Dotcom Bubble Waiting to Burst? 28 September 2006. Retrieved on 24 February 2007 from http://www.seomoz.org/blog/is-social-networking-a-dotcom-bubble-waiting-to-burst

Brown v. Board of Education v. Today :: Comparative Essays Papers

Brown v. Board of Education v. Today Whenever I walk into Foellinger Auditorium, it’s usually to attend my econ lecture, but this time is different. I’m not going to listen to a lecture about how the economy works, but instead to listen to a family that caused the nation to rethink the educational system. The famous Brown family was going to give a talk about the famous case that carried their name and forever put them in history. The Brown v. Board of Education decision eliminated segregation in public schools, an injustice that so many African-Americans fought to end not only in public schools, but also public places. The Brown v. Board of Education decision was a step into the future where African-American and Caucasians could intermingle rather than be separated just because of race. Segregation in the early 50’s had finally reached the end of its journey and a new law was made to ban segregation and promote integration. Walking into the auditorium, conversations about the excitement of the Brown sisters giving a talk about the historical decision, politics, sports, and other everyday conversations could be heard. The auditorium filled with people of different ethnic groups, mainly Caucasians but several African-Americans came to hear the true story behind Brown v. Board of Education. I would have to say about 60 percent of the people were Caucasians, 25 percent African-Americans and the other 15 percent were either Asians or Hispanics. People of all ages came to hear what the Brown sisters had to say; some as young as the age of seven and some as old as in their late 60’s. Children, undergrad students, grad students, professors, as well as people with other professions filled the auditorium, with undergrad students making up most of the people who attended. However, the auditorium was not full or as filled as one would expect knowing that the Brown family was going to discuss the Brown v . Board of Education decision, a disappointing reality. The long awaited talk finally started a few minutes after four. Susan Fowler, co-chairman of the Brown v. Board commemoration, started by introducing the ten winning students who wrote to Linda Brown expressing their feelings about the Brown v. Board trial and decision. She then talked about how Project 500, established in 1968, recruited African-American students to the University of Illinois campus as a way to make the campus more diverse; project 500 was a direct result of Brown v.

To What Extent Did D.C. Stephenson Affect the Fall of the Ku Klux Klan

A. Plan of Investigation The focus of this investigation was to understand and determine to what extent D.C. Stephenson affected the fall of the Ku Klux Klan during the 1920s. During the 1920s the Klan had an all time high of membership across the United States and was a large part of American society. The Klan was prevalent in everyday society and in politics, and was a positive presence for many Americans. However, the Klan was pushed into a negative light due to Stephenson kidnapping and raping Madge Oberholtzer. Membership in the Klan dropped shortly after, and many blame Stephenson. In order to decide whether or not Stephenson was responsible, the Klan was examined during Stephenson’s involvement, and the aftermath of his involvement. D.C. Stephenson was also examined to better understand how he could have changed the course of the KKK. Sources that discussed the Klan and Stephenson were looked at, like They Called Themselves the KKK, and. Citizen Klansmen: The Ku Klux Klan in Indiana. Those sour ces, among others, helped give a better understanding of D.C. Stephenson and how he affected the KKK. B. Summary of Evidence The Ku Klux Klan began in Pulaski, Tennessee in 1865 (Martin). It started out as a group of men creating a social club, mainly for confederate soldiers who had fought in the war. Its name is derived from kuklos, meaning circle of friends (Martin). It was a secret society with rules and codes, and men were given special titles (Bartoletti,25). The nature of the Klan was not originally to be destructive, but as it began to grow and more white men and confederate soldiers joined, the purpose changed. Tension grew across the country as Reconstruction went under way and white southerners were unhappy. The Kl... ...." Dying Declaration of Madge Oberholtzer. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Apr. 2014. "Ku Klux Klan." Civil Rights in the United States. Ed. Waldo E. Martin, Jr. and Patricia Sullivan. New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2000. Opposing Viewpoints in Context. Web. 13 Apr. 2014. "Ku Klux Klan." History.com. A&E Television Networks, n.d. Web. 21 Apr. 2014. Lutholtz, M. William. Grand Dragon: D.C. Stephenson and the Ku Klux Klan in Indiana. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue UP, 1991. Print. MacLean, Nancy. Behind the Mask of Chivalry: The Making of the Second Ku Klux Klan. New York: Oxford UP, 1994. Print. McDonnell, Janet, Ann Angel, and Carolyn Kott. Washburne. America in the 20th Century. North Bellmore, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 1995. Print. Moore, Leonard Joseph. Citizen Klansmen: The Ku Klux Klan in Indiana, 1921-1928. Chapel Hill: U of North Carolina, 1991. Print.

False Memory Syndrome And The Brain Essay -- Neurological Biology Essa

False Memory Syndrome And The Brain In the mid-nineties, a sniper's hammering shots echoed through an American playground. Several children were killed and many injured. A 1998 study of the 133 children who attended the school by psychologists Dr. Robert Pynoos and Dr. Karim Nader, experts on Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among children, yielded a very bizarre discovery. Some of the children who were not on the schools grounds that day obstinately swore they had very vivid personal recollections of the attack happening (1). The children were not exaggerating, or playing make-believe. They were adamant about the fact that they were indeed there, and that they saw the attack as it was occuring. Why would these children remember something so harrowing if they didn't actually experience it? What kind of trick was their brain playing on them? Why did it happen? False Memory Syndrome (FMS) is a condition in which a person's identity and interpersonal relationships are centered on a memory of traumatic experience which is actually false, but in which the person is strongly convinced (2). When considering FMS, it's best to remember that all individuals are prone to creating false memories. A common experiment in Introduction to Psychology courses include a test similar to this one: Look at this list of words and try to memorize them: sharp thread sting eye pinch sew thin mend After a few seconds, the students will be asked to recall these words, and are asked the following questions: Was the word "needle" on the list? Was it near the top? The majority of the class will vehemently agree that needle was, in fact, on the list. And not only that, it was actually quite close to being the first word. Some will attest to havin... ... memories", implant unhealthy and false ideas into the brains of their patients that havoc ensues. References 1)Recovered Memory Therapy and False Memory Syndrome, Recent Legal and Investigative Trends by Dr. John Hochman, M.D. http://www.pimall.com/nais/n.memory.html 2) Memory and Reality: Website of the False Memory Syndrome Foundation http://www.fmsfonline.org/ 3) BodytalkMagazine.com How Memory Works http://www.bodytalkmagazine.com/how%20memory%20works.htm 4) The Skeptic's Dictionary False Memory http://skepdic.com/falsememory.html 5) Salon.com Health and Body - The Story of Valerie Jenks http://www.salon.com/health/feature/1999/12/22/false_memory/ 6) How Memory Really Works Freud's Notion of Repressed Memory http://www.skeptic.com/memory/ 7) FAQ for the False Memory Syndrome Foundation http://www.fmsfonline.org/fmsffaq.html

Business Meta-Ethics: an Analysis of Two Theories

Article Review? In the article â€Å"Business Meta-Ethics: An Analysis of two theories† written by â€Å"F. Neil Brandy and Craig P. Dunn† he has examined the two popular theories of ethics viz. traditional ethical theory (utilitarianism and deontological) and a recent model (consisting of utility, rights, justice). The writer differentiates and supports the traditional ethical theory by giving facts and practical examples. The writer starts the article by saying that presenting an ethical theory is impulsive. But, no doubt the theory of deontology and utilitarianism by Kant can’t be ignored.Many writers have added several other perspectives like egoism, virtue theory, theories of justice, rights, universalism, ethical relativism, ethics of caring etc. so, the writer says that the foundations of ethics are not secure. Humans are complex creatures and are hard to understand. No one theory will be able to prove it. Conversely, it would be quite interesting to under stand human behavior from different perspectives. After that the writer explains the human behavior by giving a very interesting example of automobile engine.He says that the engines have benefited by over and over refinement, but the fundamental design that came early (piston, turbine, electric etc. ) were not altered. Similarly, we need to make some fundamental decisions related to the basic understanding of a human behavior instead of hindering it. The main purpose of the writer is to focus and assess two dominant ethical theories for the managers. The first one is the â€Å"traditional ethical theory† viz. Kant’s theories of deontology and utilitarianism (DU) that have been considered competing but the recent research shows that they are complementing, not competing to each other.Kantian deontology and utilitarianism provides the ideals for decision making. The second one is the recent model of â€Å"utility-rights-justice model† (URJ). It opposes that there are three instead of two main requirements that completes the ethical business decision making namely, questions of utility, questions of rights and questions of justice. The writer intends to claim the precedence of traditional DU model. He proceeds by discussing three important points. First, that the URJ model can easily be simplified into the DU model. Second, he presents 3 practical cases to prove the superiority of DU model.Third, is the difference between universals and particulars. The writer explains the DU model first; he says that this model is often cited as dominant theory for application in business ethics. Other writers like Pastin (1986) say that this model is quite useful from a practical point of view. Pastin says that the two views â€Å"rule ethics† and â€Å"end-point ethics† are both included in his tool box for handling the hard problems of management. In 1985, Brady proposed a â€Å"Janus Headed† relationship of deontology and utilitaria nism are complementary and taken together, a reasonably comprehensive model of managerial decision making.In 1992, Cody and Lynn presented this idea in their book â€Å"honest Govt. † By saying that in real life, none of us is exclusively utilitarian or deontological. Our personal values reflect a mix of these view points, depending on issue. Sometimes we act solely as a matter of principle and sometimes we act practically utilitarian. Then the writer evaluates the URJ model. He says that this model attempted to act on the need to evaluate the political behavior in organizations. So, they made the 3 basic types of moral theories: utility, rights and justice. They urged that this model could be applied to political uses of power in organizations†.Two years later, Velasquez combined this model into his well-known book â€Å"Business ethics: Concept and Cases. Where he argued that the philosophy of Kant supplied â€Å"a more satisfied foundation for moral rights and he a dded a short discussion of categorical imperative with his claim. After introducing both the models, the writer gives the argument for the supremacy of DU model. Writer says that the URJ model abandons the deontological theory of Kant. It relies on the lesser known works The Metaphysical Elements of Justice (1797). Why did they cite Kant for his work on human rights but not cite him for his much important.And he says that the 3 basic kinds of moral theories; utilitarian, rights and justice seems imperfect. Writer says that the DU model encapsulates much of the URJ model. First, the issues of individual rights and duties are included under Kant’s deontological ethical theory. The DU model merges the rights and duties. Where one has rights, others have duties. Kant argues that the duties are strategically more important. Duties not only include duties to each other, but duties to family, community and environment. Certain duties are can’t be converted into someoneâ€℠¢s rights like paying taxes and towards environment.So, the idea of moral duty is more comprehensive than the individual right. DU model also encapsulates the justice prescription. URJ model says that the organizational rules must be clearly stated and consistently and impartially enforced. And the people must not be held responsible for the things they cannot control, if people are injured, the injuries must be compensated by those who are responsible for the injuries. The writer says that the same things are suggested by the existing theories and there is no need to for separate theories of justice.So, the URJ model is incomplete, as it neglects the historical deontological theory and it requires 3 categories, when only 2 are necessary. Now the writer illustrates by three short cases. 1. Political clout In this when there are to proposals that are equally at merit. So the dilemma is to be resolved procedurally. Now, on applicant applies pressure and succeeds in influencing the cho ice. For a utilitarian point of view, the decision makers did was wrong in the long term because it sets an example and it may encourage political behavior and risk the integrity of organization.A fair way would be to flip a coin. So the DU model gives a simple and appropriate analysis of case, without separate theories of justice. 2. Letter of recommendation Now a manager has to write a letter of recommendation for a problem employee. Now, he wants to be honest but it would be nice for a voluntary employee exit. If you look at it with a URJ model, utility would want a positive letter, because it would benefit the org. if we look at the rights, then the employee has the right to expect appraisal or not. In contrast to the DU model can do a better job, as the moral duty is to be honest. 3.Making an offer Suppose there is a position open at an org. and the supervisor responsible for it knows the exact person required for the job but the co. policies says to announce and publicize all openings, giving everyone a chance to apply. Should the manager open the chance or make an offer? Utility would say to make an offer but that will ignore company’s policy. So a deontological approach will recommend opening the search. So now, there’s no dilemma. But when we talk about the URJ model, then the dilemma will arise because of duty and utility conflict. After that the writer tells us about the status f universals and particulars in ethics. Deontological ethics thinks that all ethical prescriptions can be expressed as universal obligations. Rough examples include â€Å"do not kill’ and â€Å"always tell the truth†. Such principles try to observe the ways in which all humans can be alike. While, utilitarianism is a situational ethics. It requires that we attend to particularities of human living in case we fail to achieve good ends. In the conclusion the writer says that the advantages of DU model includes that it provides a genuine theory and l ays a secure foundation in the field of business ethics.The DU model has a relation to hold among the two variables of complement. Another advantage includes Kant’s universalizability. The writer has addressed the topic very nicely and has used a lot of references to prove and support his argument. But still I didn’t find the article very clear and it was confusing at times. The part of the article where he says that the moral duty is more strategic than individual right is not very persuasive. The writer didn’t end the 3 illustrations clearly. Otherwise, the writer explained the differences and advantages of DU model over URJ model very smoothly.

British airways Essay

British Airways is one of the International Airlines that provides its flights to 570 destinations in 133 territories. It mainly operates from the Heathrow and Gatwick. It faces many problems like 531 million pounds loss in revenue because of lack of international market study, employee relationship (strike problem) and many more. Hence an effective strategy is the only chance to overcome these problems. The strategy of British Airways includes the innovation in technological accessories, customers relationship, employee relationship, safety and security of stake holders and so on. Introduction: Any business has challenges from different elements like globalisation, information and technology, socio and cultural factors, political factors and so on. To meet these challenges a clear strategy is very crucial for any organization. A strategy is a clear vision of what the organisation will be based on a sustainable competitive advantage. Actually, strategy is a road map for future directions and scope. It is a long range plan for five years and more. It develops mission, objective and goals for an organisation. To develop an effective strategy any organisation must set an account with different factors. Environmental analysis, present analysis, strength, weakness, opportunities and so on are the factor through which a strategy can be developed. Part 1 1) Identify the mission, Values and key objectives of an organisation within its environment. The mission statement of British Airways is â€Å"To be the undisputed leader in world travel for the next millennium†. The values of British Airways: Honest. Reliable On time Good service Objectives of British Airways: British Airways based in London is the largest airlines in the United Kingdom and provides daily flights to more than 400 cities world-wide. Like most large corporations the airline must focus on a variety of goals and objectives both for short-term and long-term survival in the competitive global market. General objectives of British Airways: With an objective of becoming the world’s largest leader in global premium airline, British Airways will continue to focus on customer service at every level of passenger’s journey. The overall Objectives are divided into three areas. Global (appeal to all passenger’s, whether for leisure or business travel in order to create repeat customer’s). Premium (ensure that passenger’s receive the highest quality of service where ever they encounter the airlines). Airline (maintain the focus on aviation with the largest equipment, products and services). Strategic objectives of British Airways: British Airways provides four strategic objectives: Airline of choice (remain the top choice for International flights for premium customers as well as cargo, economy and shorter flights). Top-quality services (provides the best customer service for passengers on all routes and classes of travel and improve online service). Global city growth (continue to expand the list of top-tier countries through airline partnership). Meet customer’s needs (exploring the latest options and products to enhance customer loyalty. A stakeholder is a person or organisation that has an interest in a business, for example benefit from it. As a customer you are a stakeholder in British Airways. Even if someone is working part time they are stakeholders in their employers business. You can be a stakeholder as a customer, in all shops you buy from and anywhere you spend leisure money, it could be going to the cinema or supporting your football match. Stakeholders of o buy products or services, they are looking for a wide range of products and service s. They also want easy accessibility and hope to buy good quality products and services at a competitive price. They are really important as they provide money for the business in order to be successful. Suppliers Suppliers stock the business with the supplies the business needs, if they are late then it will cause a conflict between business and suppliers. Therefor it is vital that all the business suppliers are on time. Suppliers are probably the third important part in a business, they provide the products/services and if they are not in time it poses to be a threat to the financial state of the business. On the other hand, suppliers aren’t that important in decision making because they are scared of losing their contract with British Airways. Employees May want an increase in pay rise. Staffs have a very big interest in British Airways, they have an interest in the business in the form of wages, bonuses, discounts, and holiday pension. Owner’s In contrast it may want a decrease in pay rise for their employees you could say that the owners probably one of the most important people in a business. Local and national communities Give planning permission depending on the business a person wants to do. Part 2 2) Investigate the economic, social, and global environment in which organizations operate. What is an economic system: An organised manner in which a state or a nation allots its resources and allocates goods and services in the national community. An economic system is loosely defined as a countries plan for its services, goods, and the exact way in which its economic plan is carried out. Basically there are three major/different types of economic systems prevailing around the world and they are: Market Economy: In a market economy, national and state governments play a minor role. Instead consumers and their buying decisions drive the economy. In this type of economic system, the assumptions of the market play a major role in deciding the right path for a country’s economic development. Market economies aim to reduce or eliminate entirely subsidies for a particular industry, the pre-determination of prices for different commodities, and the amount of regulation controlling different industrial sectors. The absence of central planning is one of the major features of this economic system. Market decisions are mainly dominated by supply and demand, the role of the government in a market economy is to simply make sure that the market is stable enough to carry out its economic activities properly. Planned Economy: A planned economy is also known as a command economy. The most important aspect of this type of economy is that all major decisions related to the production, distribution, commodity and service prices, are all made by the government. The planned economy is government directed, and market forces have very little say in such an economy. This type of economy lacks the kind of flexibility that is present a market economy, and because of this, the planned economy reacts slower to changes in consumer needs and fluctuating patterns of supply and demand. On the other hand, a planned economy aims at using all available resources for developing production instead of allocating the resources either for advertising or marketing. Mixed Economy: A mixed economy combines elements of both the planned and the market economies in one cohesive system. This means that certain features from both market and planned economic systems are taken to form this type of economy. This system prevails in many countries where neither the government nor the business entities control the economic activities of that country – both sectors play an important role in the economic decision – making of the  country. In a mixed economy there is flexibility in some areas and government control in others. Mixed economies include both capitalist and social economic policies and often arise in societies that seek to balance a wide range of political and economic views. http://www.economywatch.com/world_economic-indicators/type British Airways operates in the Mixed economic system as British Airways was privatised on February 1987 and the government has less intervention as it’s a private company the only intervention that the government would have is only setting the prices of the air tickets. What is Social Welfare: Social welfare is about how people, communicate and institutions in a society take action to provide certain minimum standards and certain opportunities. It is generally about helping people facing contingencies. Social welfare which British Airways does for its employees. Social Welfare Policy: Is basically to improve and protect the standard of living of the people or citizens as a whole. In the United Kingdom the Name â€Å"Social Policy† is used to apply to the policies that the government uses for welfare and social protection and the ways in which welfare is basically developed in a society. There are various social welfare policies that the United Kingdom’s adopts and they are: Social welfare policy that British Airways has adopted/follows: The impact that social welfare initiates on British Airways as well as the wider community is firstly that British Airways adopting the work place regulation is that it benefits the employees of British Airways and that the employees can work without any head aces as British Airways has provided all it employees with training in safety measures, plus rest time is given to the employees and to the crew members of British Airways accommodation is given because the crew is normally flying for endless hours/long journeys. The workers are also made alert about the basic terms and conditions of the organisation which are basically ethics, code of conduct, and the responsibility of the organisation. The other social welfare policy which British Airways provides its employees is social security for its employees similar to contribution benefits (Retirement pension, maternity allowances) and also non contributor benefits (social fund, working tax benefits) to its employees, which gives the employees the freedom to do whatever in their personal life. The Employment Law in British Airways states and illustrates the normal working hours, conditions, and the acts of the organisation. What is Industrial Policy: Industrial policy comprises all government interventions which consist of: 1. Directed towards the supply side of the economy that consists of enterprises, industries, sectors). 2. Aims to influence the industrial structure of the economy and its industrial changes. Industrial policy purposefully affects incentives to produce specific goods or incentives to enter or exit a specific goods market. It is not limited to manufacturing and includes all types of commercial economic activities. Industrial policy interventions have to be justified because if competitive markets worked adequately, any such intervention would: 1. Distort optimal allocation, 2. Distort dynamic competition and its benefits (innovation, flexibility, consumer’s sovereignty etc.). 3. Privilege specific enterprises or industries or sectors at the expenses of others, 4. Would disadvantage taxpayers and consumers. (An European industrial policy: concepts and consequences, Oliver Budzinski). Industrial policy is concerned; it is the government sponsored economic program in which the public and private sector coordinate their efforts to develop new technologies and industries. Government provides the financial support and capital to the private sector by direct subsidies, tax credits or government- run developmental banks. Industries policy emphasise cooperation between government, banks, private enterprise, and employees to strengthen the national economy. http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com Impact of Industrial policy on British Airways: In the United Kingdoms the Industrial policy has affected a lot of industries but the Industry that suffered the most was the aviation industry including all the airlines even British Airways. Therefore British Airways has changed its strategy of working and has been successful as British Airways adopted new policies. One of the policy that states to reduce Co2 emissions by 15% by all airlines and British Airways has decided to reduce by 50% as they are working on creating a new kind of fuel which is known as bio diesel which is pollution free and environment friendly. Fiscal Policy: Government spending  policies that influences macroeconomic conditions. These policies affect tax rates, interest rates and government spending in an effort to control the economy. Monetary Policy: The action of a central, bank currency or other regulatory committee that determine the size and rate of growth of the money supply, which in turn affects interest rates. Monetary policy is maintained through actions such as increasing the interest rate, or changing the amount of money banks need to keep in the vault or bank reserves. Impact of fiscal and monetary policy on airline industry as well as British Airways: The principles of economics tell us that governments can sometimes improve market outcomes. Methods of influencing market outcomes can come in the form of monetary and fiscal policies. Monetary policies influence shifts in aggregate demand for goods and services by increasing the money supply, reducing the equilibrium interest rates and stimulating investment spending or decreasing the money supply, raising equilibrium interest rates, lowering investment spending (Mankiw, 2004). Fiscal policies shift the aggregate demand curve by increasing or decreasing government spending or through the increase or decrease in taxes (Mankiw). Because these policies influence aggregate demand, the government uses such policies to try and bring stabilization to the economy. Such polices affect different industries on many different levels. Some industries have positive effects and some negative. In analysing how monetary and fiscal policies affect the airline industry, we can look at how these policies affect employment, growth of the industry, and product prices. Many fiscal policies directed toward the airline industry have had profound effects. One such policy is represented by the excise taxes and fees levied on air carriers. Such taxes and fees are allocated by the Government to fund improvements of airports, provide security for the airlines and airports, allocate funding for the FAA, provide for services for international customers, and support operations at airpark facilities. These fees represent roughly 26% or $52 of a standard 200-dollar round-trip airline ticket (Air Transport Association, 2005). Current economic conditions of the airline industry are dismal, especially due to the tragic events of September 11th. The Air Transport Association (ATA) argues that such fiscal policy in these trying times hinder the air carriers’ ability to right themselves through a self-help policy. The ATA further explains that in an effort to stabilize the industry, such taxes and  fees can account for the elimination of over 129,000 jobs, forced many carriers into bankruptcy, and, because consumers react heavily to price increases in this industry, hinder their ability to allocate funds by raising ticket prices. With this current fiscal policy, air carriers have little manoeuvrability of funds to meet the demands of an operating budget. Mike Smith (personal communication, June 10, 2008), former owner of Pacific Crest Aviation in Big Bear Lake, CA, adds that go verning agencies institute other fees to generate operating revenues for airports. On example of this is landing fees. Landing fees vary from airport to airport, but play a key role in the determination of where air carriers decide to base their operations. In attempts to accumulate more funding through fiscal policy, Mr. Smith explains that the FAA continues to suggest the implementation of user fees. Still to be determined how such a fee would impact the airline industry; present fiscal policies have air carriers screaming for reform. Deregulation is another fiscal policy that has considerably impacted areas of the airline industry. Since deregulation in 1979, the airline industry experienced substantial growth. With the emergence of new competition in the industry this created numerous amounts of jobs, drove ticket prices down, and expanded the available market for various air carriers. Through an industrial wide growth of over 200%, new carriers were able to open positions to thousands of new employees in various parts of the nation. Average ticket prices in 19 79 remain relatively unchanged today. As an extremely competitive market emerged, the rally for passengers on each carriers flights kept ticket prices down as carrier created connecting flights through this new open sky policy; reaching more consumers, minimizing opportunity cost, and offering competitive pricing. The Airline industry continues to be affected by the overall condition of the nation’s economy. When healthy spending exists and pleasure travel is frequent, air carriers are able to fill flights, raise prices, and maintain a stable economic environment. However, when condition of the nation’s economy falls, so do the buying habits of the consumer. This is where the airline industry finds itself today. Struggling to fill flights in a slow economy and fighting heavy fiscal policy. Recent monetary policies made by the federal government to improve market conditions are sure to have an effect, but how it will impact employment, growth, and prices in the airline industry are  still unknown. The most Recent monetary policy made by the government came in the form of economic stimulus checks. This in-flow of money into the economy in an attempt to stimulate the purchase of goods and services throughout the United States may help diminish the effects of our current sluggish e conomy. Little to no data exists to show how this has impacted any growth in the airline industry. So far, there seems to be little change in the spending habits of the consumer to travel via air. Because the economic position of the airline industry has been struggling for so long, improvements due to any single event may be impossible to track. Whether changes in fiscal policies, monetary policies, or internal carrier structure help to improve conditions in the airline industry, changes will happen slow and will reflect economic condition in the nation’s marketplace. By successfully managing opportunity cost, and adapting to an ever changing economic environment, airline industries can have economic success. However, the well-being of the nation’s economy will have a direct impact on the level of success experienced in the airline industry. During economic shortfalls in the nation’s economy, travellers will have fewer resources available to travel for pleasure. Contributing to the negative economic influences in the airline industry, future and existing policies targeting the airline industry will continue to hinder the industry’s ability to recover losses in periods of economic hardships. http://www.taxreformpanel.gov Makiw, N.G. (2004) Principles of economics (3rd edition). Chicago, 2: Thomson South-Western. PESTLE Analyses on British Airways: PESTLE Factors Key Points Implications for British Airways Political Heavy regulation (AEA, 2009). Increased security due to past terrorist threats (DFT, 2008) Compliance is essential if British Airways wants to continue. Sufficient security measures should be in place to ensure consumer confidence and competitive advantage in maintenance. Economic Global economic crisis: world growth is projected to just over 2 per cent in 2009 (IMF, 2008). Pound weakness especially against the Euro. Oil prices declined by 50% since their peak retreating to 2007 levels. Decline in fuel prises the dollar strengthens (IMF, 2008). UK Consumer spending saw its sharpest decline for 13 years between July and September 2008 (Channel 4, 2008) Possible reduction in the amount of business travel as companies are cutting costs and using alternative means of communication such as telecom fencing. British Airways is vulnerable as a United Kingdom operating airline to a poor exchange rate. Fluctuation in oil prices and exchange rates will directly affect British Airways cost base. More intense competition. Social The United Kingdom has an aging population. Increasing Unemployment Potential opportunities for growth as older generations have more time to spend on leisure activities such as international travel. Increased bargaining power as an employee. Technological A recent survey revealed that 34% of online consumers plan to use price- comparison sites more in 2009 (NMA, 2009) Online booking services and check-in is becoming increasingly used by the airline industry. Increased consumer awareness and therefore bargaining power. British Airways must ensure that they remain up to date with these technological advances whilst avoiding becoming overly reliant, as this may isolate certain consumer markets (i.e. the elderly) who don’t feel comfortable using such technology. Environmental/Ethical Noise pollution controls and energy consumption controls. Cancellations of flights and loss of baggage. New legislation (e.g. climate change bill) enforcing tighter environmental regulation may increase operational costs each year. Such ethical issues could have a detrimental effect on reputation if left unresolved. Legal Collusion and price fixing. Recognition of trade union and industrial action e.g. cabin crew strikes. Open skies agreement. Restriction on mergers will have an impact on British Airways proposed alliance with American Airlines. Good employee relations are essential if British Airways wants to avoid industrial action and interrupted operations. Opportunity for British Airways and its competitors to freely transport aircrafts between the European Union and the United States.